KOPI LUWAK
Kopi Luwak From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Sumatran kopi luwak farmer shows beans prior to cleaning and roasting, Sumatra, Indonesia Kopi luwak (Indonesian pronunciation: [ˈkopi ˈlu.aʔ]), or civet coffee, is the world's most expensive and low-production varieties of coffee. It is made from the beans of coffee berries which have been eaten by the Asian Palm Civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus) and other related civets, then passed through its digestive tract.[1] The civet cat eats the berries for their fleshy pulp. In the digestive tract, the civet's proteolytic enzymes seep into the beans, making shorter peptides and more free amino acids. Passing through a civet's intestines the beans are then defecated, keeping their shape. After gathering, thorough washing, sun drying, light roasting and brewing, these beans yield an aromatic coffee with much less bitterness.[citation needed] This coffee is widely noted as the most expensive coffee in the world with prices reaching €550 / US$700 per kilogram .[2][3] Kopi luwak is produced mainly on the islands of Sumatra, Java, Bali, and Sulawesi in the Indonesian Archipelago. It is also widely gathered in the forest or produced in the farms in the islands of the Philippines (where the product is called kape motit in the Cordillera region, kape alamid in Tagalog areas, and kape melô or kape musang in Mindanao island), and in East Timor (where it is called kafé-laku). Weasel coffee is a loose English translation of its Vietnamese name cà phê Chồn, where popular, chemically simulated versions are also produced.
Vietnam has 2 farms with 300 wild civet cats in Dak Lak, while in Mindanao island of the Philippines, has 2 farms with 200 (in Davao City) and 50 (in Cagayan de Oro City) wild civet cats. But the archipelago of Indonesia where the famous kopi luwak was first discovered and produced is leading in supplying the world market for almost 2 centuries, where many small-scale civet cat farms are proliferating in the countryside.
Contents [hide]
[edit] Cultivars, blends, and tastes Kape Melo Coffee Shop logo in Iligan City, Philippines Kopi luwak is a name for many specific cultivars and blends of arabica, robusta, liberica or other beans eaten by civets, hence the taste can vary greatly. Nonetheless, kopi luwak coffees have a shared aroma profile and flavor characteristics, along with their lack of bitterness.
Kopi luwak has a thick texture, and tastes vary depending on roasting levels. Usually, levels range from cinnamon color to medium, with little or no carmelization of sugars within the beans as happens with heavy roasting. Moreover, kopi luwaks which have very smooth profiles are most often given a lighter roast, though at first taste it can seem a bit strong in flavor. Iced kopi luwak brews may bring out some flavors not found in other coffees. Other berries eaten by civets can give kopi luwak a pungent, sometimes bitter taste, though it varies depending on the diet of the civet.
Sumatra is the world's largest regional producer of kopi luwak. Sumatran civet coffee beans are mostly an early arabica variety cultivated in the Indonesian archipelago since the seventeenth century. The major Sumatran kopi luwak production area is in Lampung, Bengkulu and Aceh especially the Gayo region, Takengon. Tagalog kape alamid comes from civets fed on a mixture of coffee beans and is sold in the Batangas region along with gift shops near airports in the Philippines. In Iligan City, Mindanao, Philippines, Kape Melô Coffee Shop is serving the famous kape melô at anytime of the day.
[edit] Production An Asian Palm Civet Kopi is the Indonesian word for coffee. Luwak is a local name of the Asian Palm Civet in Sumatra. Palm civets are primarily frugivorous, feeding on berries and pulpy fruits such as figs and palms. Civets also eat small vertebrates, insects, ripe fruits and seeds.[5]
Early production began when beans were gathered in the wild from where a civet would defecate as a means to mark its territory. On farms, civets are either caged or allowed to roam within defined boundaries.[1]
Coffee cherries are eaten by a civet for their fruit pulp. After spending about a day and a half in the civet's digestive tract the beans are then defecated in clumps, having kept their shape and still covered with some of the fleshy berry's inner layers. They are gathered, thoroughly washed, sun dried and given only a light roast so as to keep the many intertwined flavors and lack of bitterness yielded inside the civet.
[edit] Research Defecated luwak coffee berries, East Java Several studies have examined the process in which the animal's stomach acids and enzymes digest the beans' covering and ferment the beans.[6][7][8] Research by food scientist Massimo Marcone at the University of Guelph in Ontario, Canada showed that the civet's endogenous digestive secretions seep into the beans. These secretions carry proteolytic enzymes which break down the beans' proteins, yielding shorter peptides and more free amino acids. Since the flavor of coffee owes much to its proteins, there is a hypothesis that this shift in the numbers and kinds of proteins in beans after being swallowed by civets brings forth their unique flavor. The proteins are also involved in non-enzymatic Maillard browning reactions brought about later by roasting. Moreover, while inside a civet the beans begin to germinate by malting which also lowers their bitterness.[9][10]
At the outset of his research Marcone doubted the safety of kopi luwak. However, he found that after the thorough washing, levels of harmful organisms were insignificant. Roasting at high temperature has been cited as making the beans safer after washing.[by whom?][citation needed]
[edit] Civet coffee imitation Research into the palm civet's digestive processes and the transformation of the beans' proteins has led to the discovery of innovative ways to imitate the taste of kopi luwak without the civet's involvement. This in response to the decrease in civet population, caused by hunting it for its meat.[11] Kopi luwak production involves a great deal of labor, whether farmed or wild-gathered. The small production quantity and the labor involved in production contribute to the coffee's high cost.[12] The high price of kopi luwak is another factor that drives the search for a way to produce kopi luwak in large quantities, lowering the cost.
The University of Florida has developed a way to recreate how nature produces Kopi Luwak without the involvement of any animals. This technology has been licensed to a Gainesville Florida firm, Coffee Primero, which now produces and distributes that product at a price competitive with ordinary quality coffees.[8][13]
The Trung Nguyên Coffee Company in Vietnam, through its work in isolating the civet's digestive enzymes, has patented its own synthetic enzyme soak, which is used in its Legendee brand simulated kopi luwak coffee.[7]
[edit] Controversy While some farms continue to collect wild civet excrement containing coffee beans, others have begun to cage animals and feed them a mixture of beans and fruit in order to increase yields. [1]
Some critics claim more generally that kopi luwak is simply bad coffee, purchased for novelty rather than taste.[14][15][16][17] Dr. Massimo Marcone, who performed extensive chemical tests on the beans (elaborated on later in this article), was unable to conclude if anything about their properties made them superior for purposes of making coffee. He employed several professional coffee tasters (called "cuppers") in a blind taste test. While the cuppers were able to distinguish the kopi luwak as distinct from the other samples, they had nothing remarkable to appraise about it other than it was less acidic and had less body, tasting "thin." Marcone remarked "It's not that people are after that distinct flavor. They are after the rarity of the coffee."[18]
Additionally, there is currently no accreditation process in many of the countries producing this product, making it difficult to determine the authenticity and enabling fake civet coffee beans to flood the market.[1] Marcone, who developed a chemical testing method to determine authenticity, reports that half the samples submitted to his lab are fake.[18]
[edit] Price and availability A window display in an upscale coffee shop showing Luwak Coffee in forms of defecated clumps (bottom), pre-roasted beans (left), and post-roasted beans (right). Kopi luwak is the most expensive coffee in the world, selling for between US$100 and $600 per pound.[1] The specialty Vietnamese weasel coffee, which is made by collecting coffee beans eaten by wild civets, is sold at $3,000 per kilogram (approx. $1,364 per pound).[19][dead link] Most customers are in Asia – especially Japan, Taiwan and South Korea.[20] Sources vary widely as to annual worldwide production.[21] Some specialty coffee shops sell cups of brewed kopi luwak for US$35-$80.[22][23]
Vietnam has 2 farms with 300 wild civet cats in Dak Lak, while in Mindanao island of the Philippines, has 2 farms with 200 (in Davao City) and 50 (in Cagayan de Oro City) wild civet cats. But the archipelago of Indonesia where the famous kopi luwak was first discovered and produced is leading in supplying the world market for almost 2 centuries, where many small-scale civet cat farms are proliferating in the countryside.
Contents [hide]
- 1 History
- 2 Cultivars, blends, and tastes
- 3 Production
- 4 Controversy
- 5 Price and availability
- 6 References
- 7 External links
[edit] Cultivars, blends, and tastes Kape Melo Coffee Shop logo in Iligan City, Philippines Kopi luwak is a name for many specific cultivars and blends of arabica, robusta, liberica or other beans eaten by civets, hence the taste can vary greatly. Nonetheless, kopi luwak coffees have a shared aroma profile and flavor characteristics, along with their lack of bitterness.
Kopi luwak has a thick texture, and tastes vary depending on roasting levels. Usually, levels range from cinnamon color to medium, with little or no carmelization of sugars within the beans as happens with heavy roasting. Moreover, kopi luwaks which have very smooth profiles are most often given a lighter roast, though at first taste it can seem a bit strong in flavor. Iced kopi luwak brews may bring out some flavors not found in other coffees. Other berries eaten by civets can give kopi luwak a pungent, sometimes bitter taste, though it varies depending on the diet of the civet.
Sumatra is the world's largest regional producer of kopi luwak. Sumatran civet coffee beans are mostly an early arabica variety cultivated in the Indonesian archipelago since the seventeenth century. The major Sumatran kopi luwak production area is in Lampung, Bengkulu and Aceh especially the Gayo region, Takengon. Tagalog kape alamid comes from civets fed on a mixture of coffee beans and is sold in the Batangas region along with gift shops near airports in the Philippines. In Iligan City, Mindanao, Philippines, Kape Melô Coffee Shop is serving the famous kape melô at anytime of the day.
[edit] Production An Asian Palm Civet Kopi is the Indonesian word for coffee. Luwak is a local name of the Asian Palm Civet in Sumatra. Palm civets are primarily frugivorous, feeding on berries and pulpy fruits such as figs and palms. Civets also eat small vertebrates, insects, ripe fruits and seeds.[5]
Early production began when beans were gathered in the wild from where a civet would defecate as a means to mark its territory. On farms, civets are either caged or allowed to roam within defined boundaries.[1]
Coffee cherries are eaten by a civet for their fruit pulp. After spending about a day and a half in the civet's digestive tract the beans are then defecated in clumps, having kept their shape and still covered with some of the fleshy berry's inner layers. They are gathered, thoroughly washed, sun dried and given only a light roast so as to keep the many intertwined flavors and lack of bitterness yielded inside the civet.
[edit] Research Defecated luwak coffee berries, East Java Several studies have examined the process in which the animal's stomach acids and enzymes digest the beans' covering and ferment the beans.[6][7][8] Research by food scientist Massimo Marcone at the University of Guelph in Ontario, Canada showed that the civet's endogenous digestive secretions seep into the beans. These secretions carry proteolytic enzymes which break down the beans' proteins, yielding shorter peptides and more free amino acids. Since the flavor of coffee owes much to its proteins, there is a hypothesis that this shift in the numbers and kinds of proteins in beans after being swallowed by civets brings forth their unique flavor. The proteins are also involved in non-enzymatic Maillard browning reactions brought about later by roasting. Moreover, while inside a civet the beans begin to germinate by malting which also lowers their bitterness.[9][10]
At the outset of his research Marcone doubted the safety of kopi luwak. However, he found that after the thorough washing, levels of harmful organisms were insignificant. Roasting at high temperature has been cited as making the beans safer after washing.[by whom?][citation needed]
[edit] Civet coffee imitation Research into the palm civet's digestive processes and the transformation of the beans' proteins has led to the discovery of innovative ways to imitate the taste of kopi luwak without the civet's involvement. This in response to the decrease in civet population, caused by hunting it for its meat.[11] Kopi luwak production involves a great deal of labor, whether farmed or wild-gathered. The small production quantity and the labor involved in production contribute to the coffee's high cost.[12] The high price of kopi luwak is another factor that drives the search for a way to produce kopi luwak in large quantities, lowering the cost.
The University of Florida has developed a way to recreate how nature produces Kopi Luwak without the involvement of any animals. This technology has been licensed to a Gainesville Florida firm, Coffee Primero, which now produces and distributes that product at a price competitive with ordinary quality coffees.[8][13]
The Trung Nguyên Coffee Company in Vietnam, through its work in isolating the civet's digestive enzymes, has patented its own synthetic enzyme soak, which is used in its Legendee brand simulated kopi luwak coffee.[7]
[edit] Controversy While some farms continue to collect wild civet excrement containing coffee beans, others have begun to cage animals and feed them a mixture of beans and fruit in order to increase yields. [1]
Some critics claim more generally that kopi luwak is simply bad coffee, purchased for novelty rather than taste.[14][15][16][17] Dr. Massimo Marcone, who performed extensive chemical tests on the beans (elaborated on later in this article), was unable to conclude if anything about their properties made them superior for purposes of making coffee. He employed several professional coffee tasters (called "cuppers") in a blind taste test. While the cuppers were able to distinguish the kopi luwak as distinct from the other samples, they had nothing remarkable to appraise about it other than it was less acidic and had less body, tasting "thin." Marcone remarked "It's not that people are after that distinct flavor. They are after the rarity of the coffee."[18]
Additionally, there is currently no accreditation process in many of the countries producing this product, making it difficult to determine the authenticity and enabling fake civet coffee beans to flood the market.[1] Marcone, who developed a chemical testing method to determine authenticity, reports that half the samples submitted to his lab are fake.[18]
[edit] Price and availability A window display in an upscale coffee shop showing Luwak Coffee in forms of defecated clumps (bottom), pre-roasted beans (left), and post-roasted beans (right). Kopi luwak is the most expensive coffee in the world, selling for between US$100 and $600 per pound.[1] The specialty Vietnamese weasel coffee, which is made by collecting coffee beans eaten by wild civets, is sold at $3,000 per kilogram (approx. $1,364 per pound).[19][dead link] Most customers are in Asia – especially Japan, Taiwan and South Korea.[20] Sources vary widely as to annual worldwide production.[21] Some specialty coffee shops sell cups of brewed kopi luwak for US$35-$80.[22][23]
Dance Mania
Dancing mania (also known as dancing plague, choreomania, St John's Dance and, historically, St. Vitus' Dance) was a social phenomenon that occurred primarily in mainland Europe between the 14th and 17th centuries. It involved groups of people, sometimes thousands at a time. The mania affected men, women, and children, who danced until they collapsed from exhaustion. One of the first major outbreaks was in Aachen, Germany, in 1374, and it quickly spread throughout Europe; one particularly notable outbreak occurred in Strasbourg in 1518.
Affecting thousands of people across several centuries, dancing mania was not a one-off event, and was well documented in contemporary reports. It was nevertheless poorly understood, and remedies were based on guesswork. Generally, musicians accompanied dancers, to help ward off the mania, but this tactic sometimes backfired by encouraging more to join in. There is no consensus among modern-day scholars as to the cause of dancing mania.[1]
The several theories proposed range from religious cults being behind the processions to people dancing to relieve themselves of stress and put the poverty of the period out of their minds. It is, however, understood as a mass psychogenic illness in which the occurrence of similar physical symptoms, with no known physical cause, affect a large group of people as a form of social influence.[2]
Contents [hide]
St Vitus' Dance was diagnosed, in the 17th century, as Sydenham chorea.[8] Dancing mania has also been known as epidemic chorea[4]:125 and epidemic dancing.[5] A disease of the nervous system, chorea is characterized by symptoms resembling those of dancing mania,[3]:134 which has also rather unconvincingly been considered a form of epilepsy.[6]:32 Scientists have described dancing mania as a "collective mental disorder", "collective hysterical disorder", and "mass madness".[3]:136
[edit] Outbreaks The earliest known outbreak of dancing mania occurred in the 7th century,[9] and it reappeared many times across Europe until about the 17th century, when it stopped abruptly.[3]: 132 One of the earliest known incidents occurred sometime in the 1020s in Bernburg, where 18 peasants began singing and dancing around a church, disturbing a Christmas Eve service.[7]: 202
Further outbreaks occurred during the 13th century, including one in 1237 in which a large group of children travelled from Erfurt to Arnstadt, jumping and dancing all the way,[7]:201 in marked similarity to the legend of the Pied Piper of Hamelin.[9] Another incident, in 1278, involved about 200 people dancing on a bridge over the River Meuse in Germany, resulting in its collapse. Many of the survivors were restored to full health at a nearby chapel dedicated to St Vitus.[3]:134 The first major outbreak of the mania occurred between 1373 and 1374, with incidents reported in England, Germany and the Netherlands.[6]:33
On 24 June 1374, one of the biggest outbreaks began in Aix-la-Chapelle, Aachen (now Germany),[4]:126 before spreading to other places such as Cologne, Flanders, Franconia, Hainaut, Metz, Strasbourg, Tongeren, Utrecht,[6]:33 and to countries such as Italy and Luxembourg. Further episodes occurred in 1375 and 1376, with incidents in France, Germany and Holland,[3]: 138 and in 1381 there was an outbreak in Augsburg.[6]:33 Further incidents occurred in 1418 in Strasbourg, where people fasted for days and the outbreak was probably caused by exhaustion.[3]: 137 In another outbreak, in 1428 in Schaffhausen, a monk danced to death and, in the same year, a group of women in Zurich were reportedly in a dancing frenzy.
One of the biggest outbreaks occurred in July 1518, in Strasbourg (see Dancing Plague of 1518), where a woman named Frau Troffea began dancing in the street; within four days she had been joined by 33 others, and within a month there were 400, many of whom suffered heart attacks and died.[6]:33 Further incidents occurred during the 16th century, when the mania was at its peak: in 1536 in Basel, involving a group of children; and in 1551 in Anhalt, involving just one man.[6]: 37 In the 17th century, incidents of recurrent dancing were recorded by professor of medicine Gregor Horst, who noted:
Several women who annually visit the chapel of St. Vitus in Drefelhausen... dance madly all day and all night until they collapse in ecstasy. In this way they come to themselves again and feel little or nothing until the next May, when they are again... forced around St. Vitus' Day to betake themselves to that place... [o]ne of these women is said to have danced every year for the past twenty years, another for a full thirty-two.[6]:39 Dancing mania appears to have completely died out by the mid-17th century.[6]: 46 According to John Waller, although numerous incidents were recorded, the best documented cases are the outbreaks of 1374 and 1518, for which there is abundant contemporary evidence.[5]
[edit] Characteristics The outbreaks of dancing mania varied, and several characteristics of it have been recorded. Generally occurring in times of hardship,[3]:136 up to tens of thousands of people would appear to dance for hours,[3]:133[10] days, weeks, and even months.[5][3]:132
Women have often been portrayed in modern literature as the usual participants in dancing mania, although contemporary sources suggest otherwise.[3]:139 Whether the dancing was spontaneous, or an organised event, is also debated.[3]:138 What is certain, however, is that dancers seemed to be in a state of unconsciousness,[7]:201 and unable to control themselves.[3]:136
In his research into social phenomena, author Robert Bartholomew notes that contemporary sources record that participants often did not reside where the dancing took place. Such people would travel from place to place, and others would join them along the way. With them they brought customs and behaviour that were strange to the local people.[3]:137 Bartholomew describes how dancers wore "strange, colorful attire" and "held wooden sticks".[3]:132
Robert Marks, in his study of hypnotism, notes that some decorated their hair with garlands.[7]:201 However, not all outbreaks involved foreigners, and not all were particularly calm. Bartholomew notes that some "paraded around naked"[3]:132 and made "obscene gestures".[3]:133 Some even had sexual intercourse.[3]:136 Others acted like animals,[3]:133 and jumped,[6]:32 hopped and leaped about.[6]:33
They hardly stopped,[10] and some danced until they broke their ribs and subsequently died.[6]:32 Throughout, dancers screamed, laughed, or cried,[3]:132 and some sang.[11]:60 Bartholomew also notes that observers of dancing mania were sometimes treated violently if they refused to join in.[3]:139 Participants demonstrated odd reactions to the colour red; in A History of Madness in Sixteenth-Century Germany, Midelfort notes they "could not perceive the color red at all",[6]:32 and Bartholomew reports "it was said that dancers could not stand... the color red, often becoming violent on seeing [it]".
Bartholomew also notes that dancers "could not stand pointed shoes", and that dancers enjoyed their feet being hit.[3]:133 Throughout, those affected by dancing mania suffered from a variety of ailments, including chest pains, convulsions, hallucinations, hyperventilation,[3]:136 epileptic fits,[4]:126 and visions.[12]:71 In the end, most simply dropped down, overwhelmed with exhaustion.[4]:126 Midelfort, however, describes how some ended up in a state of ecstasy.[6]:39 Typically, the mania was contagious but it often struck small groups, such as families, and individuals.[6]:37–8
[edit] Tarantism Further information: Tarantism In Italy, a similar phenomenon was tarantism, in which the victims were said to have been poisoned by a tarantula or scorpion. Its earliest known outbreak was in the 13th century, and the only antidote known was to dance to particular music to separate the venom from the blood.[3]:133 It occurred only in the summer months. As with dancing mania, people would suddenly begin to dance, sometimes affected by a perceived bite or sting and were joined by others, who believed the venom from their own old bites was reactivated by the heat or the music.[3]:134 Dancers would perform a tarantella, accompanied by music which would eventually "cure" the victim, at least temporarily.[3]:135
Some participated in further activities, such as tying themselves up with vines and whipping each other, pretending to sword fight, drinking large amounts of wine, and jumping into the sea. Some died if there was no music to accompany their dancing. Sufferers typically had symptoms resembling those of dancing mania, such as headaches, trembling, twitching and visions.[3]:134
As with dancing mania, participants apparently did not like the colour black,[3]:133 and women were reported to be most affected.[3]:136 Unlike dancing mania, tarantism was confined to Italy and southern Europe. It was common until the 17th century, but ended suddenly, with only very small outbreaks in Italy until as late as 1959.[3]:134
A study of the phenomenon in 1959 by religious history professor Ernesto de Martino revealed that most cases of tarantism were probably unrelated to spider bites. Many participants admitted that they had not been bitten, but believed they were infected by someone who had been, or that they had simply touched a spider. The result was mass panic, with a "cure" that allowed people to behave in ways that were, normally, prohibited at the time.[3]:135 Despite their differences, tarantism and dancing mania are often considered synonymous.[3]:134
[edit] Reactions Music was typically played during outbreaks of dancing mania, as it was thought to remedy the problem. A painting by Pieter Brueghel the Younger, after drawings by his father. As the real cause of dancing mania was unknown, many of the treatments for it were simply hopeful guesses, although some did seem effective. The 1374 outbreak occurred only decades after the Black Death, and was treated in a similar fashion: dancers were isolated, and some were exorcised.[12]:70 People believed that the dancing was a curse brought about by St Vitus;[10] they responded by praying[4]:126 and making pilgrimages to places dedicated to Vitus.[6]:34
Prayers were also made to St John the Baptist, who others believed also caused the dancing.[6]:32 Others claimed to be possessed by demons,[3]:136 or Satan,[10] therefore exorcisms were often performed on dancers.[11]:60 Bartholomew notes that music was often played while participants danced, as that was believed to be an effective remedy,[3]:136 and during some outbreaks musicians were even employed to play.[3]:139 Midelfort describes how the music encouraged others to join in however, and thus effectively made things worse, as did the dancing places that were sometimes set up.[6]:35
[edit] Explanations Numerous hypotheses have been proposed for the causes of dancing mania, and it remains unclear whether it was a real illness or a social phenomenon. One of the most prominent theories is that victims suffered from ergot poisoning, which was known as St Anthony's Fire in the Middle Ages. During floods and damp periods, ergots were able to grow and affect rye and other crops. Ergotism can cause hallucinations, but cannot account for the other strange behaviour most commonly identified with dancing mania.[4]:126[10][3]:140[6]:43
Other theories suggest that the symptoms were similar to encephalitis, epilepsy, and typhus, but as with ergotism, those conditions cannot account for all symptoms.[4]:126 Numerous sources discuss how dancing mania, and tarantism, may have simply been the result of stress and tension caused by natural disasters around the time,[6]:43 such as plagues and floods.[12]:72 Hetherington and Munro describe dancing mania as a result of "shared stress";[12]:73 people may have danced to relieve themselves of the stress and poverty of the day,[12]:72 and in so doing, attempted to become ecstatic and see visions.[13]
Another popular theory is that the outbreaks were all staged,[12]:71 and the appearance of strange behaviour was due to its unfamiliarity.[3]:137 Religious cults may have been acting out well-organised dances, in accordance with ancient Greek and Roman rituals.[3]:136[3]:137 Despite being banned at the time, these rituals could be performed under the guise of uncontrollable dancing mania.[3]:140 Justus Hecker, a 19th-century medical writer, described it as a kind of festival, where a practice known as "the kindling of the Nodfyr" was carried out. This involved jumping through fire and smoke, in an attempt to ward off disease. Bartholomew notes how participants in this ritual would often continue to jump and leap long after the flames had gone.[3]:139
It is certain that many participants of dancing mania were psychologically disturbed,[3]:136 but it is also likely that some took part out of fear,[10] or simply wished to copy everyone else.[6]:43 Sources agree that dancing mania was one of the earliest-recorded forms of mass hysteria,[3]:135[12]:73 and describe it as a "psychic epidemic", with numerous explanations that might account for the behaviour of the dancers.[6]:43
Although dancing mania was something confined to its period, some have identified modern-day activities that display some of its characteristics. Bartholomew believes that raving, an activity which became popular in the latter half of the 20th century, features characteristics of dancing mania. For example, raves may involve activities that onlookers consider odd (such as partying all night), the use of drugs to bring on hallucinations, and participants who are part of a subculture.
Affecting thousands of people across several centuries, dancing mania was not a one-off event, and was well documented in contemporary reports. It was nevertheless poorly understood, and remedies were based on guesswork. Generally, musicians accompanied dancers, to help ward off the mania, but this tactic sometimes backfired by encouraging more to join in. There is no consensus among modern-day scholars as to the cause of dancing mania.[1]
The several theories proposed range from religious cults being behind the processions to people dancing to relieve themselves of stress and put the poverty of the period out of their minds. It is, however, understood as a mass psychogenic illness in which the occurrence of similar physical symptoms, with no known physical cause, affect a large group of people as a form of social influence.[2]
Contents [hide]
- 1 Definition
- 2 Outbreaks
- 3 Characteristics
- 4 Reactions
- 5 Explanations
- 6 References
- 7 Further reading
St Vitus' Dance was diagnosed, in the 17th century, as Sydenham chorea.[8] Dancing mania has also been known as epidemic chorea[4]:125 and epidemic dancing.[5] A disease of the nervous system, chorea is characterized by symptoms resembling those of dancing mania,[3]:134 which has also rather unconvincingly been considered a form of epilepsy.[6]:32 Scientists have described dancing mania as a "collective mental disorder", "collective hysterical disorder", and "mass madness".[3]:136
[edit] Outbreaks The earliest known outbreak of dancing mania occurred in the 7th century,[9] and it reappeared many times across Europe until about the 17th century, when it stopped abruptly.[3]: 132 One of the earliest known incidents occurred sometime in the 1020s in Bernburg, where 18 peasants began singing and dancing around a church, disturbing a Christmas Eve service.[7]: 202
Further outbreaks occurred during the 13th century, including one in 1237 in which a large group of children travelled from Erfurt to Arnstadt, jumping and dancing all the way,[7]:201 in marked similarity to the legend of the Pied Piper of Hamelin.[9] Another incident, in 1278, involved about 200 people dancing on a bridge over the River Meuse in Germany, resulting in its collapse. Many of the survivors were restored to full health at a nearby chapel dedicated to St Vitus.[3]:134 The first major outbreak of the mania occurred between 1373 and 1374, with incidents reported in England, Germany and the Netherlands.[6]:33
On 24 June 1374, one of the biggest outbreaks began in Aix-la-Chapelle, Aachen (now Germany),[4]:126 before spreading to other places such as Cologne, Flanders, Franconia, Hainaut, Metz, Strasbourg, Tongeren, Utrecht,[6]:33 and to countries such as Italy and Luxembourg. Further episodes occurred in 1375 and 1376, with incidents in France, Germany and Holland,[3]: 138 and in 1381 there was an outbreak in Augsburg.[6]:33 Further incidents occurred in 1418 in Strasbourg, where people fasted for days and the outbreak was probably caused by exhaustion.[3]: 137 In another outbreak, in 1428 in Schaffhausen, a monk danced to death and, in the same year, a group of women in Zurich were reportedly in a dancing frenzy.
One of the biggest outbreaks occurred in July 1518, in Strasbourg (see Dancing Plague of 1518), where a woman named Frau Troffea began dancing in the street; within four days she had been joined by 33 others, and within a month there were 400, many of whom suffered heart attacks and died.[6]:33 Further incidents occurred during the 16th century, when the mania was at its peak: in 1536 in Basel, involving a group of children; and in 1551 in Anhalt, involving just one man.[6]: 37 In the 17th century, incidents of recurrent dancing were recorded by professor of medicine Gregor Horst, who noted:
Several women who annually visit the chapel of St. Vitus in Drefelhausen... dance madly all day and all night until they collapse in ecstasy. In this way they come to themselves again and feel little or nothing until the next May, when they are again... forced around St. Vitus' Day to betake themselves to that place... [o]ne of these women is said to have danced every year for the past twenty years, another for a full thirty-two.[6]:39 Dancing mania appears to have completely died out by the mid-17th century.[6]: 46 According to John Waller, although numerous incidents were recorded, the best documented cases are the outbreaks of 1374 and 1518, for which there is abundant contemporary evidence.[5]
[edit] Characteristics The outbreaks of dancing mania varied, and several characteristics of it have been recorded. Generally occurring in times of hardship,[3]:136 up to tens of thousands of people would appear to dance for hours,[3]:133[10] days, weeks, and even months.[5][3]:132
Women have often been portrayed in modern literature as the usual participants in dancing mania, although contemporary sources suggest otherwise.[3]:139 Whether the dancing was spontaneous, or an organised event, is also debated.[3]:138 What is certain, however, is that dancers seemed to be in a state of unconsciousness,[7]:201 and unable to control themselves.[3]:136
In his research into social phenomena, author Robert Bartholomew notes that contemporary sources record that participants often did not reside where the dancing took place. Such people would travel from place to place, and others would join them along the way. With them they brought customs and behaviour that were strange to the local people.[3]:137 Bartholomew describes how dancers wore "strange, colorful attire" and "held wooden sticks".[3]:132
Robert Marks, in his study of hypnotism, notes that some decorated their hair with garlands.[7]:201 However, not all outbreaks involved foreigners, and not all were particularly calm. Bartholomew notes that some "paraded around naked"[3]:132 and made "obscene gestures".[3]:133 Some even had sexual intercourse.[3]:136 Others acted like animals,[3]:133 and jumped,[6]:32 hopped and leaped about.[6]:33
They hardly stopped,[10] and some danced until they broke their ribs and subsequently died.[6]:32 Throughout, dancers screamed, laughed, or cried,[3]:132 and some sang.[11]:60 Bartholomew also notes that observers of dancing mania were sometimes treated violently if they refused to join in.[3]:139 Participants demonstrated odd reactions to the colour red; in A History of Madness in Sixteenth-Century Germany, Midelfort notes they "could not perceive the color red at all",[6]:32 and Bartholomew reports "it was said that dancers could not stand... the color red, often becoming violent on seeing [it]".
Bartholomew also notes that dancers "could not stand pointed shoes", and that dancers enjoyed their feet being hit.[3]:133 Throughout, those affected by dancing mania suffered from a variety of ailments, including chest pains, convulsions, hallucinations, hyperventilation,[3]:136 epileptic fits,[4]:126 and visions.[12]:71 In the end, most simply dropped down, overwhelmed with exhaustion.[4]:126 Midelfort, however, describes how some ended up in a state of ecstasy.[6]:39 Typically, the mania was contagious but it often struck small groups, such as families, and individuals.[6]:37–8
[edit] Tarantism Further information: Tarantism In Italy, a similar phenomenon was tarantism, in which the victims were said to have been poisoned by a tarantula or scorpion. Its earliest known outbreak was in the 13th century, and the only antidote known was to dance to particular music to separate the venom from the blood.[3]:133 It occurred only in the summer months. As with dancing mania, people would suddenly begin to dance, sometimes affected by a perceived bite or sting and were joined by others, who believed the venom from their own old bites was reactivated by the heat or the music.[3]:134 Dancers would perform a tarantella, accompanied by music which would eventually "cure" the victim, at least temporarily.[3]:135
Some participated in further activities, such as tying themselves up with vines and whipping each other, pretending to sword fight, drinking large amounts of wine, and jumping into the sea. Some died if there was no music to accompany their dancing. Sufferers typically had symptoms resembling those of dancing mania, such as headaches, trembling, twitching and visions.[3]:134
As with dancing mania, participants apparently did not like the colour black,[3]:133 and women were reported to be most affected.[3]:136 Unlike dancing mania, tarantism was confined to Italy and southern Europe. It was common until the 17th century, but ended suddenly, with only very small outbreaks in Italy until as late as 1959.[3]:134
A study of the phenomenon in 1959 by religious history professor Ernesto de Martino revealed that most cases of tarantism were probably unrelated to spider bites. Many participants admitted that they had not been bitten, but believed they were infected by someone who had been, or that they had simply touched a spider. The result was mass panic, with a "cure" that allowed people to behave in ways that were, normally, prohibited at the time.[3]:135 Despite their differences, tarantism and dancing mania are often considered synonymous.[3]:134
[edit] Reactions Music was typically played during outbreaks of dancing mania, as it was thought to remedy the problem. A painting by Pieter Brueghel the Younger, after drawings by his father. As the real cause of dancing mania was unknown, many of the treatments for it were simply hopeful guesses, although some did seem effective. The 1374 outbreak occurred only decades after the Black Death, and was treated in a similar fashion: dancers were isolated, and some were exorcised.[12]:70 People believed that the dancing was a curse brought about by St Vitus;[10] they responded by praying[4]:126 and making pilgrimages to places dedicated to Vitus.[6]:34
Prayers were also made to St John the Baptist, who others believed also caused the dancing.[6]:32 Others claimed to be possessed by demons,[3]:136 or Satan,[10] therefore exorcisms were often performed on dancers.[11]:60 Bartholomew notes that music was often played while participants danced, as that was believed to be an effective remedy,[3]:136 and during some outbreaks musicians were even employed to play.[3]:139 Midelfort describes how the music encouraged others to join in however, and thus effectively made things worse, as did the dancing places that were sometimes set up.[6]:35
[edit] Explanations Numerous hypotheses have been proposed for the causes of dancing mania, and it remains unclear whether it was a real illness or a social phenomenon. One of the most prominent theories is that victims suffered from ergot poisoning, which was known as St Anthony's Fire in the Middle Ages. During floods and damp periods, ergots were able to grow and affect rye and other crops. Ergotism can cause hallucinations, but cannot account for the other strange behaviour most commonly identified with dancing mania.[4]:126[10][3]:140[6]:43
Other theories suggest that the symptoms were similar to encephalitis, epilepsy, and typhus, but as with ergotism, those conditions cannot account for all symptoms.[4]:126 Numerous sources discuss how dancing mania, and tarantism, may have simply been the result of stress and tension caused by natural disasters around the time,[6]:43 such as plagues and floods.[12]:72 Hetherington and Munro describe dancing mania as a result of "shared stress";[12]:73 people may have danced to relieve themselves of the stress and poverty of the day,[12]:72 and in so doing, attempted to become ecstatic and see visions.[13]
Another popular theory is that the outbreaks were all staged,[12]:71 and the appearance of strange behaviour was due to its unfamiliarity.[3]:137 Religious cults may have been acting out well-organised dances, in accordance with ancient Greek and Roman rituals.[3]:136[3]:137 Despite being banned at the time, these rituals could be performed under the guise of uncontrollable dancing mania.[3]:140 Justus Hecker, a 19th-century medical writer, described it as a kind of festival, where a practice known as "the kindling of the Nodfyr" was carried out. This involved jumping through fire and smoke, in an attempt to ward off disease. Bartholomew notes how participants in this ritual would often continue to jump and leap long after the flames had gone.[3]:139
It is certain that many participants of dancing mania were psychologically disturbed,[3]:136 but it is also likely that some took part out of fear,[10] or simply wished to copy everyone else.[6]:43 Sources agree that dancing mania was one of the earliest-recorded forms of mass hysteria,[3]:135[12]:73 and describe it as a "psychic epidemic", with numerous explanations that might account for the behaviour of the dancers.[6]:43
Although dancing mania was something confined to its period, some have identified modern-day activities that display some of its characteristics. Bartholomew believes that raving, an activity which became popular in the latter half of the 20th century, features characteristics of dancing mania. For example, raves may involve activities that onlookers consider odd (such as partying all night), the use of drugs to bring on hallucinations, and participants who are part of a subculture.